Environment & ecology

Introduction:

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) refers to a collection of technologies that capture carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions produced from industrial processes that use fossil fuels or biofuels or directly from the air, and either utilize it for various purposes or store it underground to prevent its release into the atmosphere. This is considered an essential part of efforts to mitigate climate change by reducing the amount of CO₂, a potent greenhouse gas, in the atmosphere. 

Components of CCUS:

• Carbon Capture: The process of capturing CO₂ emissions before they are released into the atmosphere. This can be achieved through different methods:
  • Post-combustion capture: Capturing CO₂ from the flue gas after fuel combustion.
  • Pre-combustion capture: Removing CO₂ before combustion during the process of converting fossil fuels into gas.
  • Oxy-fuel combustion: Using pure oxygen instead of air for combustion to concentrate CO₂ in the exhaust gases.
• Carbon Utilization: Refers to the conversion of captured CO₂ into useful products such as:
  • Enhanced oil recovery (EOR): Injecting CO₂ into oil reservoirs to extract more oil.
  • Carbon-based materials: Producing chemicals, fuels, or construction materials (e.g., carbonates, plastics).
  • Biofuels: Using captured CO₂ to promote algae or other biological processes for biofuel production.
• Carbon Storage: Refers to the long-term storage of CO₂ in underground geological formations, ensuring it doesn’t return to the atmosphere. This is typically done in:
  • Deep saline aquifers: Underground rock formations containing salty water.
  • Depleted oil and gas reservoirs: Once oil and gas have been extracted, the empty reservoirs can store CO₂.
  • Unmineable coal seams: Storing CO₂ in coal seams where it can displace methane, which can then be extracted.

Potential Role of CCUS in Tackling Climate Change:

• Mitigation of Industrial Emissions: Many industries, such as cement, steel, and chemicals, produce significant CO₂ emissions that are difficult to eliminate due to the nature of their processes. CCUS provides a feasible solution to reduce emissions from these sectors without requiring complete industrial overhaul or a transition to alternative technologies.
• Decarbonizing Energy Systems: For sectors that are hard to electrify (e.g., heavy industry and some parts of transportation), CCUS allows the continued use of fossil fuels while capturing and storing the emissions, thus reducing overall emissions.
  • Fossil fuel-based power plants can incorporate CCUS technologies to reduce emissions. In particular, gas-fired plants with carbon capture are seen as potentially more adaptable to provide low-emission energy in the transition away from coal.
• Negative Emissions and Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR): CCUS, particularly when combined with bioenergy BECCS (Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage), can lead to "negative emissions" where more CO₂ is removed from the atmosphere than is emitted. This can help offset hard-to-abate sectors such as steel, aluminium, cement, chemicals and transportation that are unlikely to reach zero emissions.
  • This negative emissions approach could be vital in achieving global climate goals, including those in the Paris Agreement, which aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C.
• Support for Net-Zero Emissions Goals: To achieve "net-zero" emissions by mid-century, the world may need to rely on CCUS to compensate for the emissions that are extremely costly to eliminate directly, particularly in sectors like aviation, shipping, and cement production.
  • According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), achieving net-zero emissions globally by 2050 will require CCUS to capture 7-10 gigatonnes of CO₂ annually by mid-century (IEA).
• Creating New Economic Opportunities: CCUS can support new industries and technologies that utilize captured CO₂. For example, carbon utilization in the production of synthetic fuels, chemicals, or materials can create jobs and stimulate innovation.
  • Furthermore, the development of CCUS infrastructure, including pipelines, storage sites, and CO₂ transportation networks, can create additional economic opportunities.
• Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) and Energy Security: Using captured CO₂ for EOR can extend the life of oil fields, boosting oil production while simultaneously sequestering CO₂. This could provide a bridging technology that supports energy security during the transition to renewable energy.

Challenges to the Effectiveness of CCUS:

• High Capital Cost: The technology remains expensive, particularly in terms of capture, transportation, and storage infrastructure. The economic feasibility of CCUS depends on carbon pricing, government subsidies, and the market value of CO₂-derived products.
• Identification, Regulatory Mechanism and Monitoring: Identifying suitable storage sites and ensuring long-term regulatory compliance and monitoring are crucial for the success of CCUS. 
• Public Perception and Environmental Safeguards: Local communities may have concerns about the safety of CO₂ storage, particularly regarding leakage contamination and other environmental hazards.

Way Forward: 

• Invest in CCUS technology through climate finance, carbon credits, and public-private partnerships.
• Advocate for government incentives, funding programs, and stable regulation to attract sustainable investment and reduce risk.
• Focus on R&D in hard-to-abate sectors like cement, steel, and chemicals for scalable deployment.
• Build supply chains and infrastructure for CO₂ transport and storage by coordinating among stakeholders.
• Collaborate internationally for knowledge sharing, best practices, capacity building initiatives and market access to enhance competitiveness and project viability.

Seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers is a significant environmental concern in many parts of the world, including India. This phenomenon occurs when saltwater from the sea infiltrates freshwater aquifers, rendering the groundwater unfit for human consumption, irrigation, and other uses. In India, the impact of seawater intrusion on coastal aquifers is exacerbated by over-extraction of groundwater, climate change, and improper land and water management practices.

Causes of Seawater Intrusion:

• Over-extraction of Groundwater for Agriculture and Other Uses: Excessive withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation, domestic, and industrial needs disturbs the natural freshwater–seawater balance in aquifers. When extraction outpaces recharge, the hydraulic pressure that prevents seawater intrusion weakens, allowing saltwater to move inland. Unsustainable irrigation practices, such as flood irrigation, further aggravate the problem by accelerating groundwater depletion.
• Rising Sea Levels Due to Climate Change: Sea-level rise due to climate change contributes to increased seawater intrusion. Higher sea levels result in the displacement of saltwater into freshwater aquifers, especially in low-lying coastal areas. The rise in temperature also causes more evaporation, further reducing the freshwater availability.
• Land Use Changes and Urbanization: Urbanization along coastal areas often leads to reduced natural recharge of groundwater, as urban development increases impervious surfaces like concrete and asphalt. This reduces the natural infiltration of rainwater into aquifers, making them more vulnerable to seawater intrusion.
  • Deforestation and changes in land use, such as agricultural expansion near coastal zones, also impact the natural flow of groundwater, exacerbating the problem.
• Natural Geology of Coastal Areas: Some coastal areas have geological characteristics that make them more susceptible to seawater intrusion. The presence of permeable layers, such as sand, gravel, or fractured rock, allows for easier movement of seawater into the aquifers.

Remedial Measures to Combat Seawater Intrusion

• Sustainable Groundwater Management: Regulation of groundwater extraction is critical. This can be done by enforcing regulations on the number of wells, depth of extraction, and the amount of groundwater withdrawn. Recharge management through rainwater harvesting, artificial recharge systems, and recharging ponds can restore the natural pressure balance in aquifers, preventing seawater intrusion.
• Use of Alternative Water Sources: Desalination of seawater and reuse of treated wastewater are viable options in coastal areas facing severe groundwater contamination. This can supplement freshwater supplies for irrigation, industrial use, and drinking, reducing dependence on local groundwater.
  • Surface water management, such as creating reservoirs, can also provide an alternative to groundwater extraction.
• Vegetative and Land Use Management: Reforestation and afforestation of coastal areas help in restoring the natural hydrological balance. Coastal vegetation like mangroves and casuarina trees also act as natural barriers that slow down seawater intrusion.
  • Land-use planning to restrict overexploitation of coastal aquifers and prevent unchecked urbanization near water bodies is essential.
• Coastal Aquifer Management: The construction of subsurface barriers, such as impervious walls or injection of freshwater, can help create a physical barrier between seawater and freshwater aquifers. This prevents the lateral movement of seawater into freshwater zones.
  • Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) is a method of artificially increasing the recharge of aquifers by injecting freshwater into the ground, which can push back seawater.
• Community Awareness and Education: Educating local communities about the importance of water conservation, sustainable agricultural practices, and the impacts of over-extraction can help reduce the demand on groundwater resources. Community-based water management programs can play an important role in mitigating seawater intrusion.
• Monitoring and Data Collection: Establishing a comprehensive monitoring system to track groundwater quality and levels is essential for detecting early signs of seawater intrusion. This system should include regular monitoring of salinity levels, groundwater extraction rates, and other key indicators.
• Implementation of Legal and Policy Frameworks: Strengthening the legal and policy framework governing water use, including groundwater, is essential. This includes the implementation of regulations that limit extraction rates and incentivize the use of alternative water sources.

The coastal aquifers play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance by supporting freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity, fulfilling agricultural needs by providing irrigation water and preserving soil fertility, safeguarding food security for millions living in coastal regions. They also supply safe drinking water, directly contributing to urban growth and human well-being. Commitment to sustainable water governance, strict regulation, and integration of nature-based and technological solutions will ensure that coastal aquifers continue to support ecological and developmental needs while preventing seawater intrusion.

Introduction

Groundwater depletion has emerged as a critical environmental and socio-economic challenge in India. In 2024, total annual groundwater recharge experienced a significant increase of 15 BCM (Billion Cubic Meters), while extraction decreased by 3 BCM compared to the 2017 assessment. This progress underscores the importance of understanding groundwater's availability, usage, and the challenges ahead.

Factors Contributing to Groundwater Depletion

• Over-extraction for Irrigation: The Central Ground Water Board reports that 1,186 out of 6,881 assessed units in India are over-exploited, primarily due to agricultural use.
  • Example: In Punjab, the water table has been declining at a rate of 0.7-1.2 meters per year due to intensive rice-wheat cultivation.
• Population Growth and Urbanization: India's urban population is projected to reach 600 million by 2036, further straining groundwater resources.
  • Example: In Delhi, groundwater levels have dropped by 24 meters in the 2011-2020 due to population growth and urbanization.
• Inefficient Water Use and Distribution: High water losses due to leakages, inefficient irrigation methods, and outdated infrastructure.
  • Example: The city of Mumbai loses about 30-35% of its water supply due to leakages and theft.
• Climate Change: The Indian Meteorological Department reports a 6% decline in mean annual rainfall since the 1950s, affecting groundwater recharge.
  • Example: The 2018 Kerala floods, followed by severe droughts, highlight the impact of climate change on water resources.
• Lack of Regulation and Enforcement: Weak groundwater laws and inadequate monitoring of extraction rates.
  • Example: As of 2021, only 19 states/UTs have enacted legislation for the management of ground water and among them, the legislation was only partially implemented in four states.

Government Initiatives in India for Groundwater Management

• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) 2.0: This mission supports rainwater harvesting via stormwater drains and promotes groundwater recharge through 'Aquifer Management Plans.' 
• Atal Bhujal Yojana (2020): This initiative targets water-stressed Gram Panchayats in 80 districts across 7 states, focusing on groundwater management. 
• National Aquifer Mapping (NAQUIM): Completed by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) for over 25 lakh sq. km, this initiative supports groundwater recharge and conservation planning. 
• Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Groundwater (2020): Developed by CGWB, plans for 1.42 crore rainwater harvesting and recharge structures to harness 185 BCM of rainfall.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY): The PMKSY aims to expand irrigation coverage and improve water use efficiency through components like Har Khet Ko Pani, Repair & Renovation of water bodies, and Surface Minor Irrigation schemes. 
• Bureau of Water Use Efficiency (BWUE): Set up under the National Water Mission in 2022, the BWUE promotes water use efficiency across sectors such as irrigation, drinking water supply, power generation, and industries. 
• Mission Amrit Sarovar (2022): This mission aims to create or rejuvenate 75 Amrit Sarovars in every district to enhance water harvesting and conservation. 
• National Water Policy (2012): Formulated by the Department of Water Resources, this policy advocates for rainwater harvesting, water conservation, and augmenting water availability through direct use of rainfall. 
• Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) 2.0: First launched in June 2018 by NITI Aayog, the 2.0 version ranks various states for the reference year 2017-18 as against the base year 2016-17. 

Conclusion

Addressing groundwater depletion in India requires a multi-faceted approach combining improved agricultural practices, efficient water use, artificial recharge, demand management, and strengthened regulations. By implementing sustainable water management practices, India can work towards ensuring water security for its growing population and economy while preserving this critical natural resource for future generations.

Introduction: 

Ans. Mining is vital for extracting essential mineral resources that drive a nation’s economy. Mining contributes 0.90% to India’s GDP.  As per the Indian Bureau of Mines, India’s total geographical area is 328.73 million hectares, of which only 0.09% (3.12 lakh hectares) is under mining leases (excluding fuel, atomic, and minor minerals). Despite such a small share, mining activities pose significant environmental hazards alongside their economic contributions.

Body: 

Reasons Mining is Considered as  Environmental Hazard

• Deforestation and Habitat Destruction: Large-scale mining operations, particularly in forested regions, lead to the destruction of forests and loss of biodiversity. This disrupts ecosystems and wildlife habitats.
  • Example, The  Supreme Court in Bellary Iron Ore Mining (Karnataka) issue  found that rampant illegal iron ore mining in Bellary, Chitradurga, and Tumkur districts of Karnataka led to large scale deforestation and loss of biodiversity.
    
• Water Pollution: Mining activities often result in the contamination of water bodies with harmful chemicals, such as heavy metals and toxic waste from tailings, which can poison aquatic life and affect nearby communities.
  • Example, According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), the Sukinda valley-one of the world’s largest chromite deposits-faces severe water pollution from hexavalent chromium discharged by open-cast mining.
    
• Soil Erosion and Land Degradation: The removal of vegetation and topsoil during mining leads to soil erosion and loss of soil fertility, making the land unsuitable for agriculture or natural regeneration.
  • Example, Uranium mining at Jaduguda ( Jharkhand) has generated radioactive wastes leading to land degradation.
• Air Pollution: Dust and particulate matter generated by mining activities can degrade air quality, leading to respiratory diseases in miners and nearby populations.
  • Example, in Goa iron ore mining has led to siltation and contamination of rivers affecting aquatic life.
    
• Waste Generation: Mining produces large amounts of waste, including tailings, slag, and toxic by-products, which can leach into the environment and contaminate soil and water resources.
• Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): It refers to the outflow of acidic water from mining sites, especially coal and metal mines, when sulfide minerals (like pyrite – FeS₂) are exposed to air and water. This reaction produces sulfuric acid and dissolved iron, lowering the pH of water bodies.

Remedial Measures

• Reforestation and Land Restoration: Rehabilitating mined lands through afforestation, soil restoration, and creating green cover can help restore ecosystems.
  • Example, the Government has launched various afforestation measures like Ek Ped Maa ke Naam,  Nagar Van Yojana.
    
• Water Management: Using water treatment techniques to prevent contamination and designing proper drainage systems to control runoff can protect water bodies from mining waste.
  • Example, Namami Gange Programme, National Water Mission. 
• Sustainable Mining Practices: Implementing cleaner and more efficient mining technologies that reduce dust emissions, energy consumption, and water usage is crucial.
  
• Waste Management: Proper disposal of mining waste, including safe tailings management and recycling, is essential to prevent pollution.
  
• Strict Regulatory Oversight: Enforcing environmental regulations, conducting environmental impact assessments (EIA), and regular monitoring are vital for ensuring sustainable mining practices.
  • Example, District Mineral Foundation (DMF), Star Rating of Mines (2016), National Mineral Policy 2019, Mine Closure Plans. 

Conclusion

Mining is often a double-edged sword-while it significantly contributes to economic growth, it simultaneously causes serious environmental hazards. Hence, the need of the hour is to adopt a sustainable mining approach, ensuring that economic development and environmental protection coexist in harmony.

Introduction 

• India, as a responsible global actor, has aligned its developmental priorities with climate action. Through Paris Agreement commitments and subsequent updates, it balances growth, sustainability, and equity in international climate negotiations.

Paris Agreement

• The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change, adopted by 195 Parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris, France, on 12 December 2015.
• India, as a signatory to the Paris Agreement (2015), has made several significant climate commitments aimed at mitigating climate change and contributing to global efforts in limiting global warming to well below 2°C, with efforts to limit it to 1.5°C.  

Nationally Determined Contribution

• India submitted its first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in the year 2015 comprising of following two targets to be achieved by 2030:
  • Reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 percent from 2005 level.
  • Achieve about 40 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources.
• These two targets have been achieved well ahead of the time. As on 31st October, 2023; the cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources is 186.46 MW, which is the 43.81% of the total cumulative electric power installed capacity.  As per the third national communication submitted by India to the UNFCCC in December 2023, the emission intensity of its GDP has been reduced by 33 percent between 2005 and 2019.
• NDC was updated in August 2022 with several key changes:
  • India committed to reducing its GDP emissions intensity by 45% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels.
  • The target for electricity from non-fossil fuels was raised to 50% of cumulative installed capacity by 2030.
  • Introduction of the ‘LiFE’ (Lifestyle for Environment) initiative promoting sustainable living, aimed at combating climate change.

COP26

During COP26 in Glasgow (2021), India took following steps to enhance its climate commitments:

• Net-Zero Emissions by 2070: India made a landmark commitment to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070, a key milestone that was welcomed as a significant step in reducing global emissions. While this target is later than the 2050 target set by many developed nations, it considers India’s developmental priorities and the need for financial and technological support.
• Updated Renewable Energy Targets: India enhanced its target for renewable energy by pledging to achieve 500 GW of non-fossil energy capacity by 2030, which is a substantial increase from its original commitment. This ambitious target reflects India’s focus on scaling up clean energy solutions to meet growing energy demands.
• Reducing Total Projected Carbon Emissions: India committed to reducing its total projected carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030, showcasing its focus on addressing both emissions intensity and overall emissions growth.
• Phase Out of Coal: India announced the intention to reduce the use of coal and shift towards cleaner energy sources, signaling a strong commitment to phasing out fossil fuel dependency in the long term.
• Panchamrit (Five Nectar Elements): India articulated and put across the concerns of developing countries at the 26th session of the COP26 to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It presented the following five nectar elements of India’s climate action:
  • Reach 500GWNon-fossil energy capacity by 2030.
  • 50 per cent of its energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030.
  • Reduction of total projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes from now to 2030.
  • Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45 per cent by 2030, over 2005 levels.
  • Achieving the target of net zero emissions by 2070.

Conclusion

India has progressively scaled up ambitions w.r.t. climate change, while balancing growth and equity. Targets achieved well ahead of its time, updated NDCs, Panchamrit, and LiFE vision demonstrate India’s leadership in climate diplomacy and commitment to a sustainable development model.